BIOFILMS AS A FORM OF EXISTENCE OF MICROORGANISMS IN THE HUMAN ORGANISM
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.11603/1681-2727.2025.1.15155Keywords:
biofilms, formation, properties of bacteriaAbstract
Microbiological science has made significant progress in understanding the existence of microorganisms in multi-level biological systems which are called biofilms during recent decades.
This review paper presents structured, systematized information about the study of the structure and functioning biofilms that form both on biological and synthetic substrates.
Microorganisms involved in the formation of biofilms, mechanisms of mutual influence of representatives of the group on each other, the difference between the properties of a single strain and the same bacteria that are part of the biofilm are characterized.
The stages of formation and the method of «communication» of group members using «Quorum Sensing» are described. The role of biofilm representatives in the pathogenesis of infectious diseases, the acquisition of bacteria resistance to antimicrobial drugs and tolerance to the action of immune defense factors of the macroorganism through the exchange of information within biofilms is revealed.
This review allows specialists of different fields of medicine to assess the place of biofilms in the physiological functioning of the human body and their role in the development of pathological conditions of various localization, as well as ways to prevent their formation by influencing biofilm representatives.
References
Янковський, Д. С., Широбоков, В. П., Димент, Г. С. (2017). Мікробіом: монографія. Київ: ФІП Верес, 640.
Климнюк, С. І., Волч, О. М., Загричук, Н. Я., Ткачук Н. І. (2023). Мікробіом організму людини: навч. посібник. Тернопіль: Осадна Ю.В, 416.
Vestby, L. K., Grønseth, T., Simm, R., & Nesse, L. L. (2020). Bacterial biofilm and its role in the pathogenesis of disease. Antibiotics, 9(2), 59. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9020059
Høiby, N. (2017). A short history of microbial biofilms and biofilm infections. Apmis, 125(4), 272-275. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.12686
Costerton, J. W., Stewart, P. S., & Greenberg, E. P. (1999). Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science, 284(5418), 1318-1322. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.284.5418.1318
Bjarnsholt, T. (2013). The role of bacterial biofilms in chronic infections. Apmis, 121, 1-58. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/apm.12099
Abisado, R. G., Benomar, S., Klaus, J. R., Dandekar, A. A., & Chandler, J. R. (2018). Bacterial quorum sensing and microbial community interactions. MBio, 9(3), 10-1128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/mBio.02331-17
Вiofilm. en.wikipedia.org. Retrieved from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofilm.
Seymour, G. J., Ford, P. J., Cullinan, M. P., Leishman, S., & Yamazaki, K. (2007). Relationship between periodontal infections and systemic disease. Clinical Microbiology and infection, 13, 3-10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2007.01798.x
Birlutiu, V., Birlutiu, R. M., & Costache, V. S. (2018). Viridans streptococcal infective endocarditis associated with fixed orthodontic appliance managed surgically by mitral valve plasty: A case report. Medicine, 97(27), e11260. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000011260
Elgharably, H., Hussain, S. T., Shrestha, N. K., Blackstone, E. H., & Pettersson, G. B. (2016, March). Current hypotheses in cardiac surgery: biofilm in infective endocarditis. In Seminars in thoracic and cardiovascular surgery (Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 56-59). WB Saunders. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semtcvs.2015.12.005
Long, B., & Koyfman, A. (2018). Infectious endocarditis: an update for emergency clinicians. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 36(9), 1686-1692. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajem.2018.06.074
DeAntonio, R., Yarzabal, J. P., Cruz, J. P., Schmidt, J. E., & Kleijnen, J. (2016). Epidemiology of otitis media in children from developing countries: A systematic review. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology, 85, 65-74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2016.03.032
Van Hoecke, H., De Paepe, A. S., Lambert, E., Van Belleghem, J. D., Cools, P., Van Simaey, L., ... & Dhooge, I. (2016). Haemophilus influenzae biofilm formation in chronic otitis media with effusion. European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, 273, 3553-3560. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-016-3958-9
Daniel, M., Imtiaz-Umer, S., Fergie, N., Birchall, J. P., & Bayston, R. (2012). Bacterial involvement in otitis media with effusion. International journal of pediatric otorhinolaryngology, 76(10), 1416-1422. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2012.06.013
Fergie, N., Bayston, R., Pearson, J. P., & Birchall, J. P. (2004). Is otitis media with effusion a biofilm infection? Clinical Otolaryngology & Allied Sciences, 29(1), 38-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2273.2004.00767.x
Lee, M. R., Pawlowski, K. S., Luong, A., Furze, A. D., & Roland, P. S. (2009). Biofilm presence in humans with chronic suppurative otitis media. Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery, 141(5), 567-571. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otohns.2009.08.010
Galli, J., Calò, L., Giuliani, M., Sergi, B., Lucidi, D., Meucci, D., ... & Paludetti, G. (2016). Biofilm’s role in chronic cholesteatomatous otitis media: a pilot study. Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery, 154(5), 914-916. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0194599816630548
Gu, X., Keyoumu, Y., Long, L., & Zhang, H. (2014). Detection of bacterial biofilms in different types of chronic otitis media. European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, 271, 2877-2883. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-013-2766-8
Belfield, K., Bayston, R., Birchall, J. P., & Daniel, M. (2015). Do orally administered antibiotics reach concentrations in the middle ear sufficient to eradicate planktonic and biofilm bacteria? A review. International journal of pediatric otorhinolaryngology, 79(3), 296-300. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2015.01.003
Teymoortash, A., Wollstein, A. C., Lippert, B. M., Peldszus, R., & Werner, J. A. (2002). Bacteria and pathogenesis of human salivary calculus. Acta oto-laryngologica, 122(2), 210-214.
Teymoortash, A., Wollstein, A. C., Lippert, B. M., Peldszus, R., & Werner, J. A. (2002). Bacteria and pathogenesis of human salivary calculus. Acta oto-laryngologica, 122(2), 210-214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00016480252814252
Kao, W. K., Chole, R. A., & Ogden, M. A. (2020). Evidence of a microbial etiology for sialoliths. The Laryngoscope, 130(1), 69-74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.27860
Fusconi, M., Petrozza, V., Schippa, S., de Vincentiis, M., Familiari, G., Pantanella, F., ... & Gallo, A. (2016). Bacterial biofilm in salivary gland stones: cause or consequence? Otolaryngology – Head and Neck Surgery, 154(3), 449-453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0194599815622425
Gonzalez-Escobedo, G., & Gunn, J. S. (2013). Gallbladder epithelium as a niche for chronic Salmonella carriage. Infection and immunity, 81(8), 2920-2930. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/IAI.00258-13
González, J. F., Tucker, L., Fitch, J., Wetzel, A., White, P., & Gunn, J. S. (2019). Human bile-mediated regulation of Salmonella curli fimbriae. Journal of bacteriology, 201(18), 10-1128. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/JB.00055-19
Crawford, R. W., Rosales-Reyes, R., Ramirez-Aguilar, M. D. L. L., Chapa-Azuela, O., Alpuche-Aranda, C., & Gunn, J. S. (2010). Gallstones play a significant role in Salmonella spp. gallbladder colonization and carriage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(9), 4353-4358. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1000862107
Dejea, C. M., & Sears, C. L. (2016). Do biofilms confer a pro-carcinogenic state? Gut microbes, 7(1), 54-57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2015.1121363
Li S., Konstantinov, S. R., Smits, R., Peppelenbosch, M. P. (2017). Bacterial Biofilms in Colorectal Cancer Initiation and Progression. Trends Mol. Med., 23, 18-30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2016.11.004
von Rosenvinge, E. C., O’May, G. A., Macfarlane, S., Macfarlane, G. T., & Shirtliff, M. E. (2013). Microbial biofilms and gastrointestinal diseases. Pathogens and disease, 67(1), 25-38. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/2049-632X.12020
Kim, E. R., & Chang, D. K. (2014). Colorectal cancer in inflammatory bowel disease: the risk, pathogenesis, prevention and diagnosis. World journal of gastroenterology: WJG, 20(29), 9872-9881. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3748/wjg.v20.i29.9872
Swidsinski, A., Weber, J., Loening-Baucke, V., Hale, L. P., & Lochs, H. (2005). Spatial organization and composition of the mucosal flora in patients with inflammatory bowel disease. Journal of clinical microbiology, 43(7), 3380-3389. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.43.7.3380-3389.2005
Dejea, C. M., Wick, E. C., Hechenbleikner, E. M., White, J. R., Mark Welch, J. L., Rossetti, B. J., ... & Sears, C. L. (2014). Microbiota organization is a distinct feature of proximal colorectal cancers. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(51), 18321-18326. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1406199111
Tomkovich, S., Dejea, C. M., Winglee, K., Drewes, J. L., Chung, L., Housseau, F., ... & Sears, C. L. (2019). Human colon mucosal biofilms from healthy or colon cancer hosts are carcinogenic. The Journal of clinical investigation, 129(4), 1699-1712. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI124196
Yu, J., Chen, Y., Fu, X., Zhou, X., Peng, Y., Shi, L., ... & Wu, Y. (2016). Invasive Fusobacterium nucleatum may play a role in the carcinogenesis of proximal colon cancer through the serrated neoplasia pathway. International journal of cancer, 139(6), 1318-1326. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.30168
Jung, H. S., Ehlers, M. M., Lombaard, H., Redelinghuys, M. J., & Kock, M. M. (2017). Etiology of bacterial vaginosis and polymicrobial biofilm formation. Critical reviews in microbiology, 43(6), 651-667. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/1040841X.2017.1291579
Machado, A., & Cerca, N. (2015). Influence of biofilm formation by Gardnerella vaginalis and other anaerobes on bacterial vaginosis. The Journal of infectious diseases, 212(12), 1856-1861. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv338
Castro, J., França, A., Bradwell, K. R., Serrano, M. G., Jefferson, K. K., & Cerca, N. (2017). Comparative transcriptomic analysis of Gardnerella vaginalis biofilms vs. planktonic cultures using RNA-seq. NPJ biofilms and microbiomes, 3(1), 3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41522-017-0012-7
Castro, J., Machado, D., & Cerca, N. (2019). Unveiling the role of Gardnerella vaginalis in polymicrobial bacterial vaginosis biofilms: the impact of other vaginal pathogens living as neighbors. The ISME journal, 13(5), 1306-1317. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-018-0337-0
Verstraelen, H., & Swidsinski, A. (2019). The biofilm in bacterial vaginosis: implications for epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment: 2018 update. Current opinion in infectious diseases, 32(1), 38-42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/QCO.0000000000000516
Moreno, I., & Franasiak, J. M. (2017). Endometrial microbiota–new player in town. Fertility and sterility, 108(1), 32-39. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2017.05.034
Cicinelli, E., De Ziegler, D., Nicoletti, R., Tinelli, R., Saliani, N., Resta, L., ... & De Vito, D. (2009). Poor reliability of vaginal and endocervical cultures for evaluating microbiology of endometrial cavity in women with chronic endometritis. Gynecologic and obstetric investigation, 68(2), 108-115. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000223819
Swidsinski, A., Verstraelen, H., Loening-Baucke, V., Swidsinski, S., Mendling, W., & Halwani, Z. (2013). Presence of a polymicrobial endometrial biofilm in patients with bacterial vaginosis. PloS one, 8(1), e53997. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0053997
Almeida, R. A., Matthews, K. R., Cifrian, E., Guidry, A. J., & Oliver, S. P. (1996). Staphylococcus aureus invasion of bovine mammary epithelial cells. Journal of dairy science, 79(6), 1021-1026. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(96)76454-8
Hensen, S. M., Pavičić, M. J. A. M. P., Lohuis, J. A. C. M., De Hoog, J. A. M., & Poutrel, B. (2000). Location of Staphylococcus aureus within the experimentally infected bovine udder and the expression of capsular polysaccharide type 5 in situ. Journal of dairy science, 83(9), 1966-1975. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)75073-9
Seixas, R., Varanda, D., Bexiga, R., Tavares, L., & Oliveira, M. (2015). Biofilm-formation by Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis isolates from subclinical mastitis in conditions mimicking the udder environment. Polish journal of veterinary sciences. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/pjvs-2015-0102
Vautor, E., Abadie, G., Pont, A., & Thiery, R. (2008). Evaluation of the presence of the bap gene in Staphylococcus aureus isolates recovered from human and animals species. Veterinary Microbiology, 127(3-4), 407-411. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.08.018
Zuniga, E., Melville, P. A., Saidenberg, A. B., Laes, M. A., Gonsales, F. F., Salaberry, S. R., ... & Benites, N. R. (2015). Occurrence of genes coding for MSCRAMM and biofilm-associated protein Bap in Staphylococcus spp. isolated from bovine subclinical mastitis and relationship with somatic cell counts. Microbial pathogenesis, 89, 1-6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micpath.2015.08.014
Foreman, A., Boase, S., Psaltis, A., & Wormald, P. J. (2012). Role of bacterial and fungal biofilms in chronic rhinosinusitis. Current allergy and asthma reports, 12, 127-135. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11882-012-0246-7
Ramakrishnan, Y., Shields, R. C., Elbadawey, M. R., & Wilson, J. A. (2015). Biofilms in chronic rhinosinusitis: what is new and where next?. The Journal of Laryngology & Otology, 129(8), 744-751. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022215115001620
Tan, N. C. W., Foreman, A., Jardeleza, C., Douglas, R., Vreugde, S., & Wormald, P. J. (2013, April). Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus: the Trojan horse of recalcitrant chronic rhinosinusitis?. In International forum of allergy & rhinology (Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 261-266). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/alr.21154
Kadioglu, A., Weiser, J. N., Paton, J. C., & Andrew, P. W. (2008). The role of Streptococcus pneumoniae virulence factors in host respiratory colonization and disease. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 6(4), 288-301. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro1871
Al-Mazrou K.A., Al-Khattaf A.S. (2008). Adherent Biofilms in Adenotonsillar Diseases in Children. Arch. Otolaryngol.-Head Neck Surg., 134(1), 20-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/archoto.2007.18
Diaz, R. R., Picciafuoco, S., Paraje, M. G., Villegas, N. A., Miranda, J. A., Albesa, I., ... & Paglini-Oliva, P. (2011). Relevance of biofilms in pediatric tonsillar disease. European journal of clinical microbiology & infectious diseases, 30, 1503-1509. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-011-1249-3
Roberts, A. L., Connolly, K. L., Kirse, D. J., Evans, A. K., Poehling, K. A., Peters, T. R., & Reid, S. D. (2012). Detection of group A Streptococcus in tonsils from pediatric patients reveals high rate of asymptomatic streptococcal carriage. BMC pediatrics, 12, 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2431-12-3
Woo, J. H., Kim, S. T., Kang, I. G., Lee, J. H., Cha, H. E., & Kim, D. Y. (2012). Comparison of tonsillar biofilms between patients with recurrent tonsillitis and a control group. Acta oto-laryngologica, 132(10), 1115-1120. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/00016489.2012.689859
Hoa, M., Tomovic, S., Nistico, L., Hall-Stoodley, L., Stoodley, P., Sachdeva, L., ... & Coticchia, J. M. (2009). Identification of adenoid biofilms with middle ear pathogens in otitis-prone children utilizing SEM and FISH. International journal of pediatric otorhinolaryngology, 73(9), 1242-1248. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2009.05.016
Fiedler, T., Riani, C., Koczan, D., Standar, K., Kreikemeyer, B., & Podbielski, A. (2013). Protective mechanisms of respiratory tract Streptococci against Streptococcus pyogenes biofilm formation and epithelial cell infection. Applied and environmental microbiology, 79(4), 1265-1276. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.03350-12
Kinnari, T. J. (2015). The role of biofilm in chronic laryngitis and in head and neck cancer. Current opinion in otolaryngology & head and neck surgery, 23(6), 448-453. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/MOO.0000000000000200
Cattelan, N., Dubey, P., Arnal, L., Yantorno, O. M., & Deora, R. (2016). Bordetella biofilms: a lifestyle leading to persistent infections. FEMS Pathogens and Disease, 74(1), ftv108. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/femspd/ftv108
Paddock, C. D., Sanden, G. N., Cherry, J. D., Gal, A. A., Langston, C., Tatti, K. M., ... & Zaki, S. R. (2008). Pathology and pathogenesis of fatal Bordetella pertussis infection in infants. Clinical infectious diseases, 47(3), 328-338. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/589753
De Gouw, D., Serra, D. O., De Jonge, M. I., Hermans, P. W., Wessels, H. J., Zomer, A., ... & Mooi, F. R. (2014). The vaccine potential of Bordetella pertussis biofilm-derived membrane proteins. Emerging microbes & infections, 3(1), 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/emi.2014.58
Dorji, D., Graham, R. M., Singh, A. K., Ramsay, J. P., Price, P., & Lee, S. (2019). Immunogenicity and protective potential of Bordetella pertussis biofilm and its associated antigens in a murine model. Cellular Immunology, 337, 42-47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellimm.2019.01.006
Hoiby, N., Ciofu, O., & Bjarnsholt, T. (2010). Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms in cystic fibrosis. Future microbiology, 5(11), 1663-1674. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2217/fmb.10.125
Hector, A., Frey, N., & Hartl, D. (2016). Update on host-pathogen interactions in cystic fibrosis lung disease. Molecular and Cellular Pediatrics, 3, 1-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40348-016-0039-5
Starner, T. D., Zhang, N., Kim, G., Apicella, M. A., & McCray Jr, P. B. (2006). Haemophilus influenzae forms biofilms on airway epithelia: implications in cystic fibrosis. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine, 174(2), 213-220. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.200509-1459OC
Høiby, N., Johansen, H. K., Moser, C., Song, Z., Ciofu, O., & Kharazmi, A. (2001). Pseudomonas aeruginosa and the in vitroand in vivo biofilm mode of growth. Microbes and infection, 3(1), 23-35. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1286-4579(00)01349-6
Yoon, S. S., Hennigan, R. F., Hilliard, G. M., Ochsner, U. A., Parvatiyar, K., Kamani, M. C., ... & Hassett, D. J. (2002). Pseudomonas aeruginosa anaerobic respiration in biofilms: relationships to cystic fibrosis pathogenesis. Developmental cell, 3(4), 593-603. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1534-5807(02)00295-2
Høiby, N., Bjarnsholt, T., Moser, C., Bassi, G. L., Coenye, T., Donelli, G., ... & Zimmerli, C. E. E. W. (2015). ESCMID guideline for the diagnosis and treatment of biofilm infections 2014. Clinical microbiology and infection, 21, S1-S25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2014.10.024
Bartoletti, R., Cai, T., Nesi, G., Albanese, S., Meacci, F., Mazzoli, S., & Naber, K. (2014). The impact of biofilm-producing bacteria on chronic bacterial prostatitis treatment: results from a longitudinal cohort study. World Journal of Urology, 32, 737-742. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-013-1145-9
Nickel, J. C., Olson, M. E., Barabas, A., Benediktsson, H., Dasgupta, M. K., & Costerton, J. W. (1990). Pathogenesis of chronic bacterial prostatitis in an animal model. British journal of urology, 66(1), 47-54. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-410X.1990.tb14864.x
Cai, T., Tessarolo, F., Caola, I., Piccoli, F., Nollo, G., Caciagli, P., ... & Johansen, T. E. B. (2018). Prostate calcifications: A case series supporting the microbial biofilm theory. Investigative and clinical urology, 59(3), 187-193. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4111/icu.2018.59.3.187
Mazzoli, S. (2010). Biofilms in chronic bacterial prostatitis (NIH-II) and in prostatic calcifications. FEMS Immunology & Medical Microbiology, 59(3), 337-344. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-695X.2010.00659.x
Anderson, G. G., Palermo, J. J., Schilling, J. D., Roth, R., Heuser, J., & Hultgren, S. J. (2003). Intracellular bacterial biofilm-like pods in urinary tract infections. Science, 301(5629), 105-107. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1084550
Fijan, S., Frauwallner, A., Langerholc, T., Krebs, B., ter Haar, J. A., Heschl, A., ... & Rogelj, I. (2019). Efficacy of using probiotics with antagonistic activity against pathogens of wound infections: an integrative review of literature. BioMed research international, 2019(1), 7585486. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/7585486
Percival, S. L., Hill, K. E., Williams, D. W., Hooper, S. J., Thomas, D. W., & Costerton, J. W. (2012). A review of the scientific evidence for biofilms in wounds. Wound repair and regeneration, 20(5), 647-657. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-475X.2012.00836.x
Davies, C. E., Wilson, M. J., HILL, K., Stephens, P., Harding, K., & Thomas, D. (2002). Use of molecular techniques to study microbial diversity in the skin: chronic wounds reevaluated. JPC. Journal des plaies et cicatrisations, (35), 35-43.
Parsek, M. R., & Singh, P. K. (2003). Bacterial biofilms: an emerging link to disease pathogenesis. Annual Reviews in Microbiology, 57(1), 677-701. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090720
James, G. A., Swogger, E., Wolcott, R., Pulcini, E. D., Secor, P., Sestrich, J., ... & Stewart, P. S. (2008). Biofilms in chronic wounds. Wound Repair and regeneration, 16(1), 37-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-475X.2007.00321.x
Davis, S. C., Ricotti, C., Cazzaniga, A., Welsh, E., Eaglstein, W. H., & Mertz, P. M. (2008). Microscopic and physiologic evidence for biofilm-associated wound colonization in vivo. Wound repair and Regeneration, 16(1), 23-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1524-475X.2007.00303.x
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 С. І. Климнюк, Л. Б. Романюк
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
Journal Infectious Disease (Infektsiini Khvoroby) allows the author(s) to hold the copyright without registration
Users can use, reuse and build upon the material published in the journal but only for non-commercial purposes
This journal is available through Creative Commons (CC) License BY-NC "Attribution-NonCommercial" 4.0
